7 to 15
एक दुखी परिवार – 7
The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the Hydaspes River as Greeks called river Jhelum, in the Punjab near Bhera. The battle resulted in a complete Macedonian victory and the annexation of the Punjab, which lay beyond the far easternmost confines of the already absorbed Persian empire, into the Alexandrian Empire.
Alexander's decision to cross the monsoon-swollen river despite close Indian surveillance, in order to catch Porus' army in the flank, has been referred as one of his "masterpieces".Although victorious, it was also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians. The resistance put up by King Porus and his men won the respect of Alexander, who asked Porus to become a Macedonian satrap, a governor of a province under the ancient Persian monarchy, better say, a subordinate ruler, often a despotic one, i.e under an autocratic ruler.
The battle is historically significant for opening up India to not only the Greeks, but also to other invasions that rattled India in the centuries that followed.
(Cont. ...)
Alexender - Porus
A close look.
एक दुखी परिवार – 8
326BCE - India was separated into 16 different kingdoms called Mahajanapadas. The 29 year old Alexander had to break through the fences of India [the kingdoms under kings Ambhi and Porus] first to enter into the subcontinent.
But, Ambhi and Porus were grave enemies. Alexander decided to exploit their enmity. He approached Ambhi, asked him to help defeat Porus. In return Alexander promised him that he will be rewarded with Porus' kingdom and an additional bonus of gold and silver. The deal seemed to Ambhi like, a boon in dusguise.
Now, that Alexander made allies with Ambhi - he thought Porus' confidence would have been devastated. But, Porus didn’t give a damn which created fear among the Macedonians.
Battle of the Jhelum (Hydaspes) was about to start. Alexander and Porus were facing each other. Between them was the deep and fast flowing Jhelum river. Alexander's troops had to cross it to begin the battle. But, he thought Porus may start his attack when his troops were crossing the river. He decided to play a trick. He made his troops to act as if, they had not moved at all. But he slowly moved the troops at night towards north and decided to cross the river far away from where Porus' army is camped. And to Porus' surprise he heard the news that, Alexander's main army was marching towards them from this right. Now, Porus was amidst a critical situation.
If he were to move to his right - the reserved troops on the other side of the bank will cross the river straight and start attacking.
If he were to remain there - he will have to face the troops coming towards his right.
So, he sent a small troop under his son Porus (Yes, his son's name is Porus again) which was ultimately defeated by Alexander. So, Porus decided to fight against Alexander himself.
Now, Read this very carefully,
This is the point where we are told - Porus was defeated. And seeing his bravery Alexander gave back his kingdom with some novelties - which is actually a lie because,
Ambhi had become Alexander’s ally on the condition he would be given Porus’ kingdom. So the fact that Alexander gave back Porus his kingdom - seems illogical.
Further, Indian kings were avid followers of Dharmayuddha. Even under the assumption that Alexander gave back the kingdom - Porus would have felt humiliated. [Want to know more? - Dharmayuddha by Chandrasekar Gokulanathan on Indian Odyssey ]
The accounts of the war mostly are given by Arrian - a Greek historian who lived centuries after the war actually happened. He could have even confused Porus' son with Porus (both having the same name). Furthermore, he would have definitely had some prejudices towards Alexander.
Why did Alexander retreat even after breaking India's fence?
People say that - When Alexander struggled to defeat a small Indian king, he decided not to campaign against the mighty ruler of Magadha - Dhana Nandha who was abot 100 times powerful than Porus.
This may be true. But, there is also a possibility that he didn't defeat Porus at all and retreated back.
There is also a belief that Alexander's army was homesick. But, the actual fact is that, the same troops were not fighting all the time. He routinely sent soldiers back home and brought new ones from his territories.
Final consensus arrived from these conclusions
Neither Alexander nor Pous won the battle. Their armies were severely damaged. Alexander left India as his army was completely withered. Porus, was not able to fight again as that was the case for him too.
Western Historians attribute to Alexander's legend and described the campaign as the triumph of the organised West against the chaotic East. Never forget,
(more to follow)
Courtesy Quora- chandrasekhar Gokulanathan.
Ambi-Alexender - Porus
A close look.
एक दुखी परिवार – 9
Hardly any wars, battles or invasions may be recounted without internal coalitions.
The Puru kingdom had its arch rival in its neighbour, Taxila, ruled by Ambi.
Ambi colluded with Alexender, but erred in sizing up Alexender, who detested Ambi's audacity in placing, rather forcing hard bargains.
Alexender granted it in duress, but not without paying Ambi back in his own coin, when it was Alexender's turn to call the shots.
According to the Greeks, even after having bested Porus, Alexander was apparently so impressed by Porus that he not simply gave back his kingdom but also added a bonus. Even the territories of king Ambhi of Taxila who had fought alongside the Macedonians, were gifted to Porus, on a silver plattet, notwithstanding the fact that Ambhi had become Alexander’s ally on the condition he would be given Porus’ kingdom. So why reward the enemy, whose army had just mauled the Macedonians?
Alexander’s post-Hydaspes charitable behaviour, as per Greek accounts, is uncharacteristic and unlikely. For, in battles before and after, he massacred everyone in the cities he subdued.
However thete are accpunts justifying Alexender's non-characteristic behavipur. Before the battle, Alexander gave king Ambhi 1000 talents (25,000 kilos) of gold for fighting alongside the Macedonians. The only explanation is Ambhi was driving a hard bargain. He knew the rattled Macedonian army was seeking to quickly exit India. He thought he could use the Macedonians to remove his rival Porus. However, Porus’ decision to offer Alexander combat checkmated those plans.
Battle of Hydaspes, the Macedonians realised they were dealing with an enemy of uncommon valour. Sensing defeat they called for a truce, which Porus accepted. The Indian king struck a bargain – in return for Ambhi’s territories, which would secure his frontiers, Porus would assist the Macedonians in leaving India safely.
Alexander retreated from India because his soldiers were weary, homesick and close to mutiny. Imagine if German soldiers had told Hitler they were tired of fighting? They would have been summarily shot. In Alexander’s time, the punishment was crucifixion.
(more to follow)
THE MAURYA DYNESTY CONQUERED ALEXENDER'S LAND
एक दुखी परिवार -१0
In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokottos and Androcottus.
He became well known in the Hellenistic world for conquering Alexander the Great's easternmost satrapies, and for defeating the most powerful of Alexander's successors, Seleucus I Nicator, in battle. Chandragupta subsequently married Seleucus's daughter to formalize an alliance and established a policy of friendship with the Hellenistic kingdoms, which stimulated India's trade and contact with the western world. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes, who visited the Maurya capital Pataliputra, is an important source of Maurya history.
Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य; (340 BC – 298 BC) was the founder of the Maurya Empire and the first emperor to unify most of Greater India into one state. He ruled from 322 BC until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favour of his son Bindusara in 298 BC.
Chandragupta Maurya was a pivotal figure in the history of India. Prior to his consolidation of power, most of the Indian Subcontinent was divided into small states, while the Nanda Empire dominated the Indus-Gangetic Plain. Chandragupta succeeded in conquering and subjugating almost all of the Indian subcontinent by the end of his reign, except the Tamil regions (Chera, Chola and Pandya) and modern day state Odisha (Kalinga). His empire extended from Bengal in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan in the west, to the Himalayas and Kashmir in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. It was the largest empire yet seen in Indian history.
After unifying much of India, Chandragupta and his chief advisor Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. He established a strong central administration patterned after Chanakya’s text on politics, the Arthashastra (English: "Economics and political science"). Maurya's India was characterised by an efficient and highly organised bureaucratic structure with a large civil service. Due to its unified structure, the empire developed a strong economy, with internal and external trade thriving and agriculture flourishing. In both art and architecture, the Maurya Empire made important contributions, deriving some of its inspiration from the culture of the Achaemenid Empire and the Hellenistic world. Chandragupta's reign was a time of great social and religious reform in India. Buddhism and Jainism became increasingly prominent.
Chandragupta became Jain by faith after renouncing the throne. In the last years of his reign he took Jain Diksha from the last Shrutakevali in Jainism Bhadrabahu to be a Jain Muni. So he abdicated his throne and with the sangha, he went to spend his last days at Shravanabelagola, a famous religious site in south India in Karnataka, where he fasted to death. Along with his grandson, Ashoka, Chandragupta Maurya is one of the most celebrated rulers in the history of India and is also known as Samrat Chakravartin. He played a crucial role in shaping the national identity of modern India, and has been lionised as a model ruler and as a national hero.
The Buddhist Emperor, Ashoka, the Great
एक दुखी परिवार – 11
The second Mauryan emperor, Bindusara, ruled for twenty-five years. He warred occasionally, reinforcing his nominal authority within India, and acquiring the title "Slayer of Enemies." Then in the year 273 BCE, he was succeeded by his son Ashoka, who in his first eight years of rule did what was expected of him: he looked after the affairs of state and extended his rule where he could.
Around the year 260 BCE, Ashoka fought great battles and imposed his rule on people southward along the eastern coast of India – an area called Kalinga. The sufferings created by the war disturbed Ashoka. He found relief in Buddhism and became an emperor with values that differed from those of his grandfather. He was a Buddhist lay member and went on a 256-day pilgrimage to Buddhist holy places in northern India. Buddhism benefited from the association with state power that Hinduism had enjoyed – and that Christianity would enjoy under Constantine the Great.
Like the Hebrew Jeroboam and other devout kings, Ashoka was no revolutionary. But there were changes. In the years to come, Ashoka mixed his Buddhism with material concerns that served the Buddha's original desire to see suffering among people mitigated: Ashoka had wells dug, irrigation canals and roads constructed. He had rest houses built along roads, hospitals built, public gardens planted and medicinal herbs grown. But Ashoka maintained his army, and he maintained the secret police and network of spies that he had inherited as a part of his extensive and powerful bureaucracy.
As was common among kings, Ashoka announced his intention to "look kindly" upon all his subjects. He kept his hold over Kalinga, and he did not allow the thousands of people abducted from Kalinga to return there. He offered the people of Kalinga a victor's conciliation, erecting a monument in Kalinga which read:
All men are my children, and I, the king, forgive what can be forgiven.
Ashoka converted his foreign policy from expansionism to that of coexistence and peace with his neighbors – the avoidance of additional conquests making his empire easier to administer. In keeping with his Buddhism he announced that he was determined to ensure the safety, peace of mind and happiness of all "animate beings" in his realm. He announced that he would now strive for conquest only in matters of the human spirit and the spread of "right conduct" among people. And he warned other powers that he was not only compassionate but also powerful.
Ashoka
An imagined Ashoka the Great
Ashoka's wish for peace was undisturbed by famines or natural disasters. His rule did not suffer from onslaught by any great migration. During his reign, no neighboring kings tried to take some of his territory – perhaps because these kings were accustomed to fearing the Mauryan monarchs and thinking them strong.
The resulting peace helped extend economic prosperity. Ashoka relaxed the harsher laws of his grandfather, Chandragupta. He gave up the kingly pastime of hunting game, and in its place he went on religious pilgrimages. He began supporting philanthropies. He proselytized for Buddhism, advocating non-violence, vegetarianism, charity and tenderness to all living things.
Ashoka had edicts cut into rocks and pillars at strategic locations throughout his empire, edicts to communicate to passers-by the way of compassion, edicts such as "listen to your father and mother," and "be generous with your friends and relatives." In his edicts he spread hope in the survival of the soul after death and in good behavior leading to heavenly salvation. And in keeping with the change that was taking place in Buddhism, in at least one of his edicts Ashoka described Siddartha Gautama not merely as the teacher that Siddartha had thought of himself but as "the Lord Buddha."
"The Gift of Dirt"
The story of Ashoka as a child giving a bowl of dirt to The Buddha, the child dreaming that the dirt is food. The Buddha, who has become a god, foresees that Ashoka will rule India and spread the Buddhist faith. A story that develops by the 100s BCE. Image of Ashoka giving a bowl of dirt to the Buddha
(Cont. .....)
Collapse of the Maurya Empire
एक दुखी परिवार – 12
In 185 BCE, the nine- generation rule of the Maurya family , beginning from Chandragupta (320-298 BC) via Ashoka, ended with King Brihadrath (187-185 BC) when an army commander-in-chief Pusyamitra Sunga, murdered the said last Maurya king , during a parade of his troops.
Pusyamitra's rise to power has been described as a reaction by Brahmins against the Buddhism of the Maurya family.
However accurate or inaccurate this description, Pusyamitra gave his support to orthodox Brahminism and appointed Brahmins to state offices. And, with Pusyamitra's rule, animal sacrifices and other hitherto activities returned, which had been outlawed under the Buddhist influence, including the musical festivals and dances that too had been outlawed.
(to continue ........)
एक दुखी परिवार – १३
POST-GUPTA PERIOD
(500-750 A.D.)
BUDDHISM in the then India ,as religion, in the Magadh Empire, where Budha attained Buddhahood and which was enbraced by Ashoka the Great as an official religion of his Monarchy, was said to be instrumental in producing two visible consequences.
It uprooted the monarchy, after enduring some generations, after Ashoka.
Secondly, it also uprooted Buddhism from its origin, to let it survive offshores , where it had been spread from its origin and source, courtesy Ashoka the Great.
The political scene in India from the decline of the Guptas until the rise of Harsha bewilders.
There were mass scale displacements of populace, small kingdoms came face to face in confrontation, claiming heritage of Guptas within their respective fields of influence.
Northern India alone got fragmented into four kingdoms, namely
• Guptas-II of Magadha,
• the Maukharis,
• the Push-abhutis and
• the Maitrakas.
The Maukharis first held the region of western U.P. around Kanauj, to oust the later Guptas , expelling them toward Malwa.
The pushyabhut ruled Thaneswar, north of Delhi. They had a marriage - alliance with the Maukharis. Marriage used to be greatly a dependable alliance. After the death of the last Maukhari king, probably the Maukhari kingdom and that of pusyabhuti were united into one kingdom. Probably the Maitrakas were of Iranian origin and ruled in Gujarat. They developed Vallabhi as their capital which became an important center of learning.
On the periphery of these four kingdoms. a number of warlords were continuously fighting with each other. All the kingdoms came into prominence after the Gupta Empire was invaded by the Huns who were drawn from the far flung Iranian territories that had earlier been part of one or the other of the Indian Empires which hit back after the principal power centre fell through and got fragmented. A political vacuum in northern India had thus ensued.
Although the political picture was discouraging, there were a few formatives trends in this period. The Gupta imperial tradition continued. In the same period even the character of the Hun invaders underwent change. Tormana was no savage but a Hinduised frontier king attacking a decaying empire. He ceased to be a foreigner. His successor, Mihirakula, was undoubtedly one of the known tyrants of history. Let by Baladitya Gupta, the last great monarch of the imperial dynasty, the rulers of north India combined to attack him and overthrow his power in a great battle of 528 A.D. The hun dynasty in India ended with it.
The university of Nalanda flourished in the sixth century. Saintly Sthiramati was its head in the middle of the sixth century. Dharmapala, who extended his patronage to the university in the latter half of the century was an eminent scholar. As a matter of fact, Nalanda witnessed its golden period in this period.
Classical Sanskrit reached its perfection in the sixth century. Bharavi, Kumaradasa and Dandin among the poets and Vishkhadatta among the dramatists lived in the sixth century A.D. Some historians ascribe the development of Indian mathematics and astronomy to the sixth century. Varahamira is said to have died in 587 A.D. Aryabhata was born in 476.
It can equally be said that philosophy, logic and mimamsa matured during this period. Buddhist and Hindu systems of logic witnessed their golden age. It is also noteworthy that vernacular literatures began to grow. Prakrit evolved into a literary language possessing its own grammars. It was this development that enabled Rajasekhara and other to create classical literature of Prakrit in the next century.
The sixth century was a period of anarchy, yet it was a germinal period which sowed the seeds of later developments.
STEEP FALL, FROM THE HEIGHTS CHANDRAGUPTA-II, HAD SCALED.
Earlier it was the rein of Chandra Gupta II, also called Vikramaditya, powerful emperor (reigned c. 380–c. 415 CE) of northern India. He was the son of Samudra Gupta and grandson ofChandra Gupta I. During his reign, art, architecture, and sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient India reached its climax.
According to tradition, Chandra Gupta II achieved power by assassinating a weak elder brother. Inheriting a large empire, he continued the policy of his father, Samudra Gupta, by extending control over neighbouring territories. From 388 to 409 he subjugated Gujarat, the region north of Bombay (Mumbai), Saurastra (now Saurashtra), in western India, and Malwa, with its capital atUjjain. These territories were ruled by Shaka chiefs, whose ancestors were Scythian tribes from the regions around Lake Balkhash (Balqash) in Kazakhstan. To strengthen his southern flank, he arranged a marriage between his daughter Prabhavati and Rudrasena II, king of the Vakatakas. When Rudrasena died, Prabhavati acted as regent for her sons, thereby increasing Gupta influence in the south. The emperor may also have made a matrimonial alliance with a dynasty in Mysore. He is almost certainly the King Chandra eulogized in the Sanskrit inscription on the iron pillar in the Qūwat al-Islām mosque in Delhi.
A strong and vigorous ruler, Chandra Gupta II was well qualified to govern an extensive empire. Some of his silver coins bear the title Vikramaditya (“Sun of Valour”), which suggests that he was the prototype for the king Vikramaditya of later Hindu tradition. Although the emperor generally resided at Ayodhya, which he made his capital, the city of Pataliputra (now Patna in Bihar) also achieved prosperity and grandeur. A benevolent king under whom India enjoyed peace and relative prosperity, he also patronized learning; among the scholars at his court were the astronomer Varahamihira and the Sanskrit poet and dramatist Kalidasa. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian, who spent six years (405–411) in India during Chandra Gupta II’s reign, spoke highly of the system of government, the means for dispensing charity and medicine (the emperor maintained free rest houses and hospitals), and the goodwill of the people. But he never visited the emperor or his court. Chandra Gupta II was a devout Hindu, but he also tolerated the Buddhist and Jain religions.
(Cont. ....)
एक दुखी परिवार – १४
Harshavardhan (c.590-647)
Harshavardhana was an Indian Emperor, who ruled over the northern parts of India for a period of more than forty years. His empire was spread over the states of Punjab, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain, lying to the north of the Narmada River.
Born in 590 AD to Prabhakar Vardhan. His elder brother was Rajyavardhan, the king of Thanesar. He was instrumental in consolidating the small republics and small monarchical states that had sprung up in North India after the downfall of the Gupta dynasty. Harsha Vardhan united the small republics from Punjab to Central India and they accepted him as their king in 606 AD. Though Harsha was only sixteen years old when he ascended the throne, he proved himself to be a great vanquisher as well as a competent administrator.
After his accession, King Harshavardhan united the two kingdoms of Thanesar (now Kurukshetra) and Kannauj. He also shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj. The next aggression faced by the king was from Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal. He defeated Sasanka and also took over Eastern Punjab (present day Haryana), Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Thereafter, he occupied Dhruvasena and Ganjam, a part of the modern Orissa State. In 630 BC, Harshavardhana faced defeat at the hands of Pulakesi II, the Chalukya King of Vatapi, in Northern Karnataka. The defeat resulted in a truce between the two kings, with Harsha accepting River Narmada as the southern boundary for his kingdom.
Patronizing Buddhism and Literature
King Harshavardhan was a Shaivite. However, he was tolerant towards all other religions and supported them fully. Some time later in his life, he became a patron of Buddhism also. King Harshavardhana propagated the religion by constructing numerous stupas in the name of Buddha. He believed in supporting art and literature and even made several donations to the Nalanda University. Harsha Vardhana also wrote three Sanskrit plays, namely Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. In 641 AD, he sent a mission to China, which helped in establishing the first diplomatic relations between China and India.
KUMBH
Harsha, who was a Shaiva by faith, began celebration of religious festivals every five years, at the confluence of three rivers (the Ganga, the Yamuna, and the Saraswati) at Prayaga. On this occasion Harsha donated all his personal earnings here among people and return only in single cloth at his kingdom and start a new journey again. It is said to be the beginning of the famous Kumbha Mela of India which still attracts millions of devotees
During his period, farmers paid
1/6th of their produce as taxes to the Government. Kingdom did not have forced labor. Punishments were not so harsh and there was no death penalty. Hospitals were well managed and maintained. Good roads were constructed with rest houses. True needy travellers were given good food and medical care, King Harsha was generous as he gave all his personal wealth and belongings in charity during the Prayag Assembly which was held once in 5 years. During Harsha’s rule, Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited India. He stayed for about 14 years in India and traveled almost all parts of North India. The places he visited were Kanchipuram in the South, visited the courts of Harsha, the Chalukya rulers and the Pallava kings Hiuen Tsang was titled as the ‘Prince of Pilgrims’.
Hiuen Tsang
Hiuen Tsang wrote a book named Siyuki which means “My Experiences” and also called as Records of the Western World. Harsha was the first to establish the Sino-Indian diplomatic relationships. It serves as the main source of information about Harsha’s conquests, religion, administration and the conditions of the people. King Harshavardhan was a Shaivite and tolerant towards all other religions and supported them fully. Some time later, he became a patron of Buddhism also. He propagated the religion by constructing numerous stupas in the name of Buddha. He also believed in supporting art and literature and even made several donations to the Nalanda University.
Death of Harsha
King Harshavardhana left for the holy abode in the year 647 AD, after ruling over the Indian subcontinent for more than 41 years.
However, since he did not have any heirs, his empire rapidly disintegrated and collapsed into small states again.
(Cont. ...)
In the 7th century , the Muslim conquests began, with the unification of Arabia by Prophet Muhammad , starting in 622 AD. Ten years late, after the Prophet departed in 632 AD, Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula, under the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) and the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750).
The Islamic conquest of Persiain in the 7th century led to the downfall of the Sassanid Empire that was ensconced there.
Also conquered during the 7th century were Syria, Palestine, Armenia,Egypt, and North Africa.
The Byzantine Empire continued suffering setbacks during the rapid expansion of the Arab Empire.
Back in India, Harsha had united Northern India, which had reverted to small republics and states after the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century.
In China,on the other hand, the Sui dynasty was replaced by the Tang dynasty, which set up its military bases from Korea to Central Asia, and was next to the Arabian later.
China began to reach its height. Sillaallied itself with the Tang Dynasty, subjugating Baekje and defeating Goguryeo to unite the Korean Peninsula under one ruler.
The Asuka period persisted in Japan throughout the 7th century.
TRIPARTITE CONFRONTATION BETWEEN PALA AND Rashtrakuta Empire, andGurjara Pratihara Empire centered on Kannauj
While political turmoils pervaded every part of the world,the most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was theTripartite struggle between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, andGurjara Pratihara Empire centered on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries. Southern India saw the rule of the Chalukya Empire, Chola Empire, Pallava Empire, Pandyan Empire, and Western Chalukya Empire. Seventh century also saw the advent of Islam as a political power, though as a fringe, in the western part of the subcontinent in modern day Pakistan. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century. The early medieval period Indian mathematics influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world and the Hindu numerals were introduced.
Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when theDelhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 CE by the central Asian Turks.
The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century, when several powerful Hindu states emerged like the Vijayanagara Empire, Gajapati Kingdom,Ahom Kingdom and Mewar dynasty. In the 16th century Mughals came from Central Asia and covered most of India gradually. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire and Mysore Kingdom to exercise control over large areas in the subcontinent.
From the late 18th century to the middle of 19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company.
Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the Indian National Congress which was later joined by other organizations as well.
The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitionedinto the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states.
Let us get back again to revisit the finer nuances of Indian History in the post muslim invasions era.
(Cont. ....)
